The Writer’s Reference Book
Stages of the Writing Process
Brainstorming
Come up with plenty of ideas and raw material when beginning a paper. Try to stop yourself from doing this too quickly, but don't hold back during brainstorming to edit yourself. Ideas should only be evalu ated once the brainstorming session is over. One way to brainstorm is to make a list of all words and ideas relate to the topic you plan to write about. Have fun, and try to come up with as many ideas as possible, even impractical ones. For more visual learners, you can spread out your words all over a page.
Once you've run out of steam, look back at your list and see if any of the words relate to each other. Can you connect words to each other? Does one word cause you to think of another? Could your list be divvyed up into categories? If you are still short on ideas after this, repeat the process. Another way to make lists is with categories, such as a for and against list. This is especially helpful when writing a comparison essay.
Venn Diagram
Another way to brainstorm is to create a Venn diagram. To create a Venn you can ask yourself what you know about a situation, what the three most important elements of a situation are, what the characteristics have in common, and what they don't have in common. You can place your ideas into circles and then have the ideas overlap, while exploring the feeling that occurs when the circles overlap. For more information on Venn diagrams, go to www.venndiagram.com.
Clustering
Clustering is another way of brainstorming. With this method, you place your main idea in a circle and then put other ideas around it. For example, if you were writing a paper about growing up, you could write the phrase "growing pains," and circle it. You could then write words all around it as fast as you think of them, even if the ideas seem random. Circle each word as you write. Then connect your word to others with lines.
Introduction
An introduction is the first chance a writer has to grab the reader’s attention and make him/her keep reading. A writer has various ways to open, and it often depends on the tone and the writer when choosing an option. An introduction should also let the reader know what s/he will be reading and should provide some background statements if a complex topic will be discussed.
A thesis statement is almost always found in the introduction.
In academic writing, you may want to begin with an assertive statement. For example: Drinking is a problem on college campuses across America. You would then want to follow up this statement with an anecdote, researched fact, quotation, or explanation. You can also vary this opening a bit, and begin the first line with a quotation instead, or an anecdote or fact. However, a narrative story’s introduction typically jumps right into the story.
An introduction is the first chance a writer has to grab the reader’s attention and make him/her keep reading. A writer has various ways to open, and it often depends on the tone and the writer when choosing an option. An introduction should also let the reader know what s/he will be reading and should provide some background statements if a complex topic will be discussed.
A thesis statement is almost always found in the introduction.
In academic writing, you may want to begin with an assertive statement. For example: Drinking is a problem on college campuses across America. You would then want to follow up this statement with an anecdote, researched fact, quotation, or explanation. You can also vary this opening a bit, and begin the first line with a quotation instead, or an anecdote or fact. However, a narrative story’s introduction typically jumps right into the story.
Don’t
- Announce what you intend to prove or explain throughout the following essay in formulaic language.
- Write, “I think.” We know the writer is the one thinking since s/he is the author.
- Define a word using the dictionary.
- “Clear your throat.” Many writers warm up and write a few paragraphs when getting into an essay and then realize that the introductory graphs were distracting from the main point – thus “clearing the writer’s throat.”
Do
- Write broad statements in the opening lines to ease the reader into your topic.
- Try to generate reader interest through the use of striking images or strong words (when applicable).
- Lead into your thesis.
- Provide background for complex topics.
Thesis Development
A thesis statement declares what the writer believes and intends to prove or explain. This statement is often thought to be the most important part of an essay because it helps the reader understand why the writer is writing. A thesis is typically located at the end of the introduction, which may be one of several paragraphs. It should be more than a simple fact. A strong thesis is provocative and takes a stand, being both specific and focused. A thesis does not have to be limited to one sentence, but the writer should be able to state the thesis aloud in one simple statement.
Tons of possible thesis statements present themselves during the course of the day. Here are some examples:
- The positive benefits of coffee outweigh the negatives.
- Mandatory high school attendance teaches students to follow routines and gives them a lifelong work ethic.
- Taking a seminar on road rage should be required for young drivers because it could teach responsible driving habits and ways to diffuse aggressive driving behavior.
Are these statements arguable? Yes. Can you find many kinds of examples to support these statements? Yes.
The goal of a thesis statement is to state an opinion and reasons why you feel that way, while alluding to the direction of the paper and support for your views that will be presented to the audience.
Body Paragraphs
The initial brainstorming process will often help writers beginning to write body paragraphs. Each idea from a list, outline, or diagram might become a body paragraph. If a writer has just three main ideas, he might have three body paragraphs.
To develop a well-structured body paragraph, first write down a main idea, then elaborate on that point with specific examples, researched data, or quotations. A summarizing line can end the paragraph if the writer desires.
Various types of essays have varied body paragraphs. For example, the body of a response essay will carefully exam a novel or book chapter, analyzing several aspects of the text. An analytic essay will have body paragraphs supporting the main thesis with research, examples, and facts. A narrative essay told from a particular point of view will have body paragraphs with vivid scenes, descriptive and telling details, will usually be in chronological order, and might even include quotations. Persuasive essays use history, facts, and opinions to persuade the reader to agree.
Organization in body paragraphs helps the reader follow your thoughts. Do not confuse the reader by jumping around from point to point - make the paper flow logically.
Topic Sentences
All essays or compositions are comprised of paragraphs, and each paragraph should have one topic sentence. A topic sentence sums up the point of a paragraph and allows the reader to know what he or she will be reading about in that paragraph. Each topic sentence in an essay should differ from the prior topic sentence and should, in a majority of cases, be presented as the first sentence of the paragraph.
Clear topic sentences will help the reader follow your discussion and will keep your paragraphs unified.
Types of Writing Assignments
Argumentation
Arguing in an academic essay challenges the writer to examine his and others’ ideas. Not every opinion can be argued effectively. When you pick a topic, you should avoid writing about issues that cannot be won. Popular argumentative essays are on gun control, abortion, capital punishment, freedom of speech, and euthanasia (the right to die). Many heated discussions come out of daily news stories, such as whether violent video games are linked to violence and should be banned.
It may be helpful to read a few issues of news magazines before choosing your stance on a topic. Once you pick a topic, do the research. Talk to the experts, go to the library, read books, journals, articles. Find out the history of your problem and whom it affects. Know the facts – consider reporting anecdotes and percentages, remembering to attribute this information to the source. When you are researching your topic, be sure to read the pros and cons of your case. You need to be informed of the side against your position, so you can anticipate the reader’s objections.
An argumentative essay’s thesis statement should include the main reasons for its assertion such as: Because of A, B has not yet been able to prove itself. You must try to interest the reader, never bore them; inform the reader, never confuse them.
Tip:
Unless your professor instructs you to do so, steer clear of using the first person when writing an argumentative essay. Also, do not begin statements with the words, “I feel,” or “I think.” We know you are thinking, which is why you are writing.
Get to the main point and speak with authority.
Cause/Effect
Cause and effect essays focus on why things occurred and what happened as a result. Cause and effect essay topics can vary from the personal to the analytic. A writer might discuss what factors led him or her to pursue a career as a writer (reading every day as a child, having a parent who works as a newspaper reporter, always being surrounded by books and writers). Or, a writer may want to analyze what events led up to a protest or riot.
It is important for a cause and effect essay writer to keep in mind that the supporting sentences of an essay are reasons that explain the effect mentioned in the topic sentence. The chart below explains this.
| Effect (Topic Sentence) |
Causes (Supporting Sentences) |
| City X has become a “donut hole.” | Companies shut down and left town. |
| City X has become a “donut hole.” | Better schools attracted families to move to the suburbs. |
| City X has become a “donut hole.” | As more families moved to the suburbs, places of entertainment and culture popped up in the suburbs as well. |
Compare/Contrast
Compare/contrast essays analyze the similarities and differences between two items, people, policies, places, etc. The essay should have a point. A person will have more success comparing Presidents or vacation destinations than comparing a book to a bunny (as humorous as that may be). Choose topics that do have some similarities.
Also, consider what you want your reader to learn. What kinds of questions do you need to answer? Try brainstorming to come up with every aspect you want to know about your two subjects. Then go back and look for connections between the two. You will want to come up with a thesis after brainstorming in order to figure out what the crux of your paper will be. A solid thesis statement for a compare/contrast essay should mention both topics and give the reader some idea of where your paper is headed.
Your last step of prewriting work will be creating an outline. Outlining will help you organize your ideas and make sure that you give both subjects, A and B, enough consideration in your paper.
There are two ways to organize a compare/contrast paper. The first option allows you to write about your first topic in your first body paragraph, the second topic in your second body paragraph, and then start a new paragraph analyzing both of the topics. The second option allows you to write about all the similarities between the topics in the first part of the essay and all the differences in the second part.
First option
- Paragraph 1: Introduction
- Paragraph 2: Topic 1 (Comparison a)
- Paragraph 3: Topic 1 (Comparison b)
- Paragraph 4: Topic 1 (Comparison c)
- Paragraph 5: Topic 2 (Contrast a)
- Paragraph 6: Topic 2 (Contrast b)
- Paragraph 7: Topic 2 (Contrast c)
- Paragraph 8: Conclusion
Second option
- Paragraph 1: Introduction
- Paragraph 2: Comparison a (Topic 1&2)
- Paragraph 3: Comparison b (Topic 1&2)
- Paragraph 4: Comparison c (Topic 1&2)
- Paragraph 5: Contrast a (Topic 1&2)
- Paragraph 6: Contrast b (Topic 1&2)
- Paragraph 7: Contrast c (Topic 1&2)
- Paragraph 8: Conclusion
Definition
A definition essay should share a writer's understanding about an idea or object. When defining a loose object or idea, such as a home, you might want to draw on your personal experiences. You might want to write about a commonly used expression, such as "Give me a break." A writer could want to talk about the various ways the expression is used, where it comes from, and why it is so commonly used.
A writer may also want to address a hard-to-grasp concept, like love, or a traditional American custom. A definition essay should be personal and stimulating and may even be amusing. When writing the definition essay, it is important to analyze where the subject came from, the history, the consequences, and the traditional thoughts or physical characteristics. Anecdotes, facts, and examples may be used to move the essay along.
Tips:
Don't rely on old dictionary definitions.
Don't be afraid to get creative and put a new spin on a much discussed idea or item.
Description
A descriptive essay uses several writing techniques to convey scene, emotion, and meaning. Descriptive essays focus on people, places, things, and moments.
Techniques
- Use details. If you are writing about the weather, use all your senses to describe a bitter cold day or the last day of summer. Penetrate your experience without becoming myopic. When writing about place, make the place come to life for the reader. Be a reporter. While writing about orange farmers struggling with frost, writer John McPhee noted that their grove had three kinds of oranges and that ripe fruit was on their trees eight months of the year. “All year long, they said, they drank concentrate at breakfast.”
- Use all your senses. How did the apple orchard smell? How did the wet grass feel under your feet? What was the light like? How did she smile?
- Make connections between objects. Compare something to another thing it is not normally related to by using similes (which uses like or as to compare) and metaphors. If something is flat, it could be flat as a marine crew cut.
- Don’t tell; show. In Writing Down the Bones, Natalie Goldberg explains that by describing a mother’s face, the rush of energy she feels when her baby enters the world, or the father applying a wet washcloth to her forehead, a writer shows without having to explain the nature of life.
- Write with emotion. Good description triggers emotions without being maudlin. Art is communication. Good writing can connect readers and writers by conveying the bitterness or beauty of one person’s isolated mountain climbing experience.
- Use imagery and symbolism. Annie Dillard wrote in Pilgrim at Tinker Creek about a frog whose head and spirit sink into a creek as he is eaten by a giant water beetle. She writes of water as a gift: “The sharks I saw roving up and down the coast. If the sharks cease roving, if they twist and rest for a moment, they die. They need water pushed into their gills; they need dance.” Through detailed descriptions about her experiences in nature she talks about life and death.
- Punch up your verbs and adjectives. Forget is and was. Does someone tease or does he cajole? Instead of dull use vapid. Does something nibble or does it gnaw? Use vituperative. Contumacious. Look up words.
Narration
A narrative reports an incident or series of incidents occurring over a period of time. The scenes described are often chronological, and use dialogue, revealing details, scenes, and characters. A narrative should contain:
- Setup: A detailed description of the place and time the action is taking place
- Conflict: The real reason the story is taking place. The conflict will outline the struggle"
- Struggle: The action taking place when the conflict is confronted and dealt with
- Outcome: The result of the struggle - good or bad
- Meaning: This does not have to explicitly stated; rather, your thesis will already allude to it
An author can use the narrative style when writing a personal essay, while anything can be described - from the worst day of your life to how you ran your first marathon. Often it becomes clear that a writer is analyzing material, letting events sift in his mind, trying to make sense of something. A personal essay is often a way of working things out, and by the end, the writer and reader should understand that something has indeed been worked out. Endings do not need to be wrapped up in a tight and seamless manner, and sometimes events don't make sense. However, there still needs to be an ending or resolution to the incident.
Persuasion
Persuasive essays attempt to get readers to accept the writer’s ideas. These ideas might be opinions or judgments, but mainly they are ideas that try to call the reader to action. In a persuasive essay the writer attempts to convince the audience that his/her thesis is valid.
Example persuasive essay prompts
- Write an essay persuading the reader that school uniforms are or are not necessary.
- Write an essay persuading the reader that students should or should not be required to perform community service before graduating high school.
- Write an essay persuading the reader that a 12-month school year – with longer breaks – is a good or bad idea.
A writer can use connotative words to make a reader accept his or her ideas. A writer may also support his or her position with examples from history, current events, personal observations, and literature. This type of essay may be biased in favor of the writer’s ideas, but it should also be honest and accurate. For example, a writer discussing the benefits of a vegetarian diet should not generalize and call carnivores unhealthy or other names. Always be specific.
A persuasive essay should always try to get the reader to agree with the author.
Research Paper
Research papers incorporate published facts that support (and in some cases refute) the view of the author. This type of paper ties together many sources of information in a clear and flowing manner.
You must refine a topic before heading to the library or quickly decide when beginning your research what facet of your topic you want to home in on.
Ways to Find Information
- Start at the library. Academic, county, and city libraries offer journals, nonfiction and fiction books, and magazines among other things. Read up on a variety of different aspects associated with your topic so you can get a good understanding of it and possibly find alternative ways to detail your main point.
- Use the Internet. Use google.com when starting out. Look up words at dictionary.com. Find out facts about local and state government at illinois.gov. Read about health at the Center for Disease Control and Prevention’s website: cdc.gov. Look at the most recent Census findings about income and housing at census.gov. Or peruse through the latest Gallup polls at gallup.com.
- Interview experts. If you are writing about low-carbohydrate diets, interview a dietician, or a veterinarian for information on low-carb pet food. Interview a professor of political science about a current event. Interview your grandmother about living through the Depression.
Writing the Research Paper
Synthesize all the information you have collected and present it in a clear, concise manner. Many writers find it helpful to begin with an outline. As always, consider your audience and tone before beginning to write and make sure you address those concerns during all stages of the writing process.
While writing, make sure to support your thesis with evidence. Present your information in a clear and concise manner. Your first draft should be longer than you intend so you can go back later and cut pieces out and/or add information where needed.
Make sure to leave time to proofread your work and go over any gaps in your presentation of ideas and information. Also, make sure your paper has subject-verb agreement, a clear thesis with supporting paragraphs, active (versus passive) voice, a conclusion. Reconsider your audience and the tone you use. Is it offensive? Are you generalizing? Do you have transitions or are there awkward breaks between paragraphs? Are your sentences varied? Do you document all your information correctly? Do you use commas, semicolons, and apostrophes correctly throughout? Did you put enough research into the paper? Proofreading is one of the most important parts of the writing process – make sure you do not neglect it.
Citing References and Avoiding Plagiarism
What is Plagiarism?
As defined by the Council of Writing Program Administrators:
In an instructional setting, plagiarism occurs when a writer deliberately uses someone else’s language, ideas, or other original (not common-knowledge) material without acknowledging its source.
How do I get the most out of a session?
Preparing ahead of time by proofreading your own work and circling or highlighting areas of concern will greatly help you get the most out of a session. Research has shown that you can spot up to 80% of your own errors just by reading your work aloud. If you come prepared, we should be able to address most concerns. We also suggest you take notes about the feedback you receive and allow ample time for revision before submitting your paper for a grade.
English 100 (Writing Lab)
What is English 100?
English 100 is a course aimed at improving the grammar and/or rhetoric skills of an individual. Facilitated through the Writing Center, students may sign up for this Pass/No Credit course no more than two times.
How do I earn credit?
The first time a student enrolls in the course there are two ways to earn credit. However, if a student enrolls a second time the opposite choice must be taken to earn the one-hour of credit. Students failing to complete a different series of modules the second time will not be awarded credit in the course. Grades are awarded as Pass/No Credit and do not affect GPA, but do affect total hours for financial aid and total graduation hours.
Option 1 – Grammar Modules
Modules are completed at the student's own pace and may be done any time via Blackboard once enrolled in the course. However, at least one module must be fully completed by Week 8 of the semester (Week 4 during the summer), and all module work must be completed by the Friday before Finals Week. A student may complete a maximum of 2 modules per day.
Option 2 – Rhetoric Modules
To earn credit for the rhetoric modules, students must complete five rhetoric modules on such topics as organization, outlining, unity, development, and definition. The modules are completed at the student's own pace via Blackboard. At least one module must be completed by Week 8 (Week 4 during the summer) and all modules must be completed by the Friday before Finals Week. A student may complete a maximum of 2 modules per day.
What if ...?
- You try to register after Week 8? No one is allowed to register for the course after Week 8 (Week 4 in the summer).
- You start the course and begin to complete an option that you had already completed in an attempt to gain credit? You will not be awarded credit even if you fail to realize you already earned it in the same way; check with an administrator if you are unsure. However, you may switch options if you realize you are completing the wrong one as long as you begin the work before Week 8.
- You fail to begin work before Week 8? You will be dropped from the class if work is not started by Week 8 (Week 4 in the summer).
